2.+Theories+and+Models

=​Learning Theories=

Behavioral Learning Theory
//The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.Some key players in the development of the behaviorist theory were Pavlov (classical conditioning), Watson, Thorndike and Skinner (operant conditioning).//

> instruction resulted in the learning of the objectives. This is also used to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction based on the acquisition of the desired knowledge and skills, and can be reflected upon to improve future instruction.
 * Impact on Instructional Design**
 * 1) //Empirically based// - In behavior modification research, the behavior is observed before and after the introduction of some sort of stimulus implemented to bring about the desired behavior. In Instructional Design, formative evaluation is conducted to collect information about whether training or
 * 1) //Behavioral objectives and practice// - Learners are observed to determine if they have already acquired a desired behavior. If the behavior is not exhibited by the learner, the instructor then creates learning objectives (or behavior objectives) which will determine the course of their instruction and the amount of practice given.
 * 2) //Instructional feedback// - Immediate positive feedback is expected to reinforce a behavioral response, while negative feedback is expected to reduce incorrect behavioral responses. Instructional designs are broken down into small steps and require frequent learner feedback to ensure little error in their performance. (Reiser, 2002)

=Cognitive Information-Processing Theory =

//"Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. However, even while accepting such behavioristic concepts, cognitive theorists view learning as involving the acquisition or reorganization of the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information."// (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187).



Read more about the congitivist impact on ISD
 * Impact on Instructional Design**
 * 1) //Assumption of limited capacity// - there are limits to the amount of information that can be processed by a system at one time. Imagine what happens when you try to run multiple applications on a computer at once. In the same way, there is a limited amount of information that learners can attend to and process effectively. In instructional design, ideas and concepts are broken down into manageable "chunks" that learners can take in a process effectively and efficiently.
 * 2) //Active engagement// - learners need to be actively engaged in processing information in order to transfer it from short-term memory to long term memory. Instructional design incorporates hands on application throughout a course or a training for this reason.
 * 3) //Feedback -// in instructional design, the instructor delivers frequent feedback to the learner about his or her performance, as well as corrective information that the learner can use to modify his or her performance. In this way, knowledge is continually corrected and stored in memory.
 * 4) //Prior knowledge -// a learner learns most efficiently and effectively when he or she is able to connect knew knowledge to their prior knowledge base. It is the instructor's job to know the learners and to lead learners to make those connections.

Gagné's Theory of Instruction
While the preceding theories were interested with the explanation of learning, Robert M. Gagné, was concerned with instruction and how "what is known about learning can be systematically related to the design of instruction" ( Reiser, 2002)

__Five Categories of Learning__ - defining categories of learning stems from the assumption that different kinds of learning require different conditions:
 * verbal information, that is, knowing "that" or "what";
 * intellectual skills, that is, applying knowledge;
 * cognitive strategies, that is, employing effective ways of thinking and learning;
 * attitudes, that is feelings and beliefs that govern choice of personal action; and
 * motor skills, that is executing precises, smooth and accurately timed movements.

__Nine Conditions of Learning__ - conditions of learning which facilitate the general process of learning and support internal processes:
 * 1) Gaining attention: a stimulus change to alert the learner and focus attention on desired features.
 * 2) Informing the learner of the objective: a statement or demonstration to form an expectancy in the learner as to the goals of instruction.
 * 3) Stimulating recall of prior learning: a question or activity to remind the learner of prerequisite knowledge.
 * 4) Presenting the stimulus: an activity or information that presents the content of what is to be learned.
 * 5) Providing learning guidance: a cue or strategy to promote encoding.
 * 6) Eliciting performance: an opportunity to practice or otherwise perform what is being learned.
 * 7) Providing feedback: information of a corrective nature that will help learners to improve their performance.
 * 8) Assessing performance: and opportunity to demonstrate what has been learned.
 * 9) Enhancing retention and transfer: examples or activities that prompt the learner to go beyond the immediate context of instruction.

__**Further Impact on Instructional Design**__
 * Notion of an enterprise schema - defines the context for learning, the reason for learning a particular set of goals in the first place; a means of helping integrate multiple goals of instruction (Gagne and Merrill, 1990)

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Constructivist Learning Theory
Constructivists believe that "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events. What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind." (Jonasson, 1991)
 * The Assumptions of Constructivism**
 * knowledge is constructed from experience
 * learning is a personal interpretation of the world
 * learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience
 * conceptual growth comes from the negotiation of meaning, the sharing of multiple perspectives and the changing of our internal representations through collaborative learning
 * learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not a separate activity (Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997)


 * Impact on Instructional Design**
 * Address broad and high-level, complex learning goals consistent with the belief that individuals do not all learn the same things from instruction
 * Impact on views pertaining to the learning conditions and instructional strategies necessary to support learning goals. Learning environments should:
 * engage learners in activities authentic to the discipline in which they are learning;
 * provide for collaboration and the opportunity to engage multiple perspectives on what is being learned;
 * support learners in setting their own goals and regulating their own learning; and
 * encourage learners to reflect on what and how they are learning

Learning Theories and Instructional Design

=Instructional Design Models =

**Early Model: General Systems Theory applied to problem solving (Characteristics)**
//Interdependent// - all elements of the system depend on each other and cannot be separated from the whole //Dynamic// - system is constantly monitoring the environment and changing accordingly //Synergistic// - the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; the elements together achieve more than they do individuall //Cybernetic// - the elements communicate efficiently among themselves

**Dick and Carey Model**


= Characteristics of Instructional Design =

Instructional Design is... include component="pageList" hideInternal="true" homeAtTop="on" limit="10"
 * leaner-centered
 * goal-oriented
 * focuses on real-world performance
 * incorporates real-world application and practice
 * focuses on outcomes that can be measured in a relaible and valid way
 * broken down into manageable "chunks" of information or concepts
 * empirical
 * typically is a team effort
 * should be effective and efficient